Results:

This workshop was the first in a series of technical workshops under the Energy Systems Modelling Theme (ESMT) of the UKERC. The overall goal of these workshops is to enhance the links between UK energy modelling practitioners, and to learn about different methodologies and analytical techniques. The specific goals of this 1 st ESMT workshop on transport modelling was to bring together energy-economic and transport modellers to learn about each others models, their synergies, and to develop potential collaborations in terms of data, insights and projects. The envisaged workshop outputs were:

• An understanding and typology of various energy/transport models
• Opportunities for sharing data and insights
• Opportunities for collaborative ventures

• Provide background on progress in the application of integrated assessment, and other analogous techniques, to transboundary air pollution processes.
• Provide a basis for identifying and assessing, in the next stage of the project, the key issues which would arise from moving from the regional level to hemispherical or global levels.
• Identify current uncertainties and constraints which might be relevant to wider applications as well as any new ones which might be expected to arise.

1. A short overview of where integrated assessment has now reached.
2. A fuller review of the state of play in the various inputs to assessment models.
3. A review of current uncertainties, although at this stage in no order of scale or importance.

1. Africa
2. Asia and the Pacific
3. Europe and Central Asia
4. Latin America and the Caribbean
5. North America
6. West Asia
7. The Polar Regions
8. The Arctic

This document is a final project report for the project titled 'Potential for Solar Energy in Food Manufacturing, Distribution and Retrail.'

1. Establish the current state of the art in relevant available solar technology - A detailed literature search of photovoltaic electricity generation has been carried out and its application to food retail, storage and distribution has been reviewed.
2. Identify the barriers for the adoption of solar technology - The real and perceived barriers to the uptake of solar energy technology options were investigated. This was done by obtaining the views of stakeholders by structured interviews and questionnaires.
3. Assess the potential for solar energy capture - In this work package the potential of solar energy capture for use in supermarkets and distribution centres was evaluated. This was achieved through modelling using available software packages and spreadsheet models developed specifically for the task.
4. Appraise the potential of alternative relevant technologies for providing renewable energy - Ways of using indirect solar energy such as wind power were investigated and compared with photovoltaic generation
5. Assess the benefits from energy saving technologies - This work package assessed the potential for reducing energy demand by using more efficient plant and improved controls in refrigeration and lighting.
6. Compare the alternative strategies for the next 5-10 years - In this work package the results of the previous work packages are reviewed and the economic viability of alternative renewable technologies is evaluated and compared with energy conservation measures.
7. Consider the merits of specific research programmes on solar energy and energy conservation in the food sector - In this work package a review of food transport refrigeration was carried out and the possibilities of using solar energy to reduce refrigeration energy consumption and emissions were considered

This document is the final project report for the project titled 'MARKAL Macro analysis of long run costs of mitigation targets.'

This report is the final report under the Defra contract EP0202 MARKAL Macro analysis of long run costs of mitigation targets. The objective of this study was to consider the additional impacts (economic and technological) of moving to an increasingly carbon constrained energy system, with reductions in CO2 of 70% and 80% by 2050. In addition, another objective was to assess the impact of including emissions from international aviation, and the implications for abatement in other sectors under a 60% constraint in 2050. This analysis builds on work led by Policy Studies Institute (further referred to as the EWP 07 MARKAL analysis), to inform the Government’s Energy White paper, published in May 2007. In that analysis, up to 60% reductions in emissions of CO2 by 2050 were considered, with many associated sensitivity runs undertaken to examine different assumptions.

A key part of the strategy outlined in the Energy White Paper Meeting the Energy Challenge included the provision of legally binding carbon targets for the whole UK economy, to progressively reduce emissions. A Climate Change Bill is being proposed that would implement such targets, and has recently been consulted on. As part of further discussions around longer-term targets, Defra commissioned this additional MARKAL analysis, to explore the impacts of more stringent targets than those considered in the Energy White Paper.

1. System evolution
2. Technology pathways
3. Economic impacts
4. International aviation

This document is a report for STFC for the project titled 'Ammonia on-farm Life cycle assessment of different ammonia uses on a farm'.

The study found that aqueous ammonia fertiliser provided the largest environmental benefit out of the three ammonia uses. While ammonia vehicle fuel and ammonia CHP were found to provide environmental benefits across most indicators, in some areas the traditional alternative was preferred. This was not the case for ammonia fertiliser.

1. Introduction
2. Goal
3. LCA Specification
4. The LCA Model
5. Analysis of Results
6. Conclusion
7. Appendices

• Market, policy and regulatory frameworks
• Business models and customer offerings
• Integrated vehicle and infrastructure systems and technologies using electricity, liquid fuel and hydrogen
• Consumer and fleet attitudes to adoption and usage behaviours

• Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) have the potential to reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions over the well-to-motion pathway by 13% (LNG) - 20%(CNG) for dedicated engines and 16% (LNG) - 24%(CNG) for High Pressure Direct Injection engines per vehicle in the 2035 timeframe in comparison to the reference baselinediesel pathway.
• Cycle specific powertrain technology selection and pathway optimisation are key to providing GHG emission benefits over given usage cycles, with High Pressure Direct Injection and Dedicated gas engines providing the highest benefit.
• Retrofit dual fuel engines have been shown to have high methane emissions, often being worse than baseline diesel powertrains on a GHG emission basis. Effective testing procedures and legislative certainty are required to ensure emissions conformity and facilitate market development
• Providing methane catalysis at real world operating temperatures, i.e. below 350°C, is essential to prevent uncombusted methane making its way out of the tailpipe in powertrains that cannot control methane slip and is a key technology that enables a pathway benefit.
• Employing ‘best practices’ at LNG, CNG and L-CNG stations is a key driver to providing pathway benefits. Vapour recovery systems should be implemented at all LNG stations and the economic proposition and expected utilisation should be aligned. CNG stations should be connected to the highest pressure tier of the grid where possible or employed in combination with a L-CNG station as an easy step to reduce emissions associated with compression, at least until the carbon intensity of the grid is significantly lower than today.
• The economic proposition for natural gas in the HGV fleet hinges upon the fuel duty differential and currently only the long haul segment is economic in the near term. Fuel duty tax stability is key to enable market confi dence to invest in natural gas vehicles and the necessary supporting infrastructure.

• Light Vehicles in the UK
• Plug-in vehicle sales
• Vehicle life
• Vehicle usage
• Consumer attitudes to plug-in vehicles
• Where to support charging
• Meeting vehicle charging requirements
• Network reinforcement costs
• Consumers, Vehicles and Energy Integration (CVEI) project
  • Consumer adoption: understanding the mass-market
  • Outputs –Modelling capability
  • Interim findings
  • Roadmap for efficient ULEV uptake and use
  • Trials will deliver further robust evidence

This document is a report on the study conducted by the Joule Centre titled 'Aviation in the North West: Emissions, Economics and Organisational Flying'.

The international community recognises climate change as one of the greatest threats facing the social, environmental and economic well-being of human-kind. At a national level, the UK has demonstrated a clear international lead in responding to climate change by putting the need for and delivery of greenhouse gas emissions reductions on a statutory footing through the Climate Change Act 2008. This act introduced legally binding targets to achieve emission reductions in both the short and longer term. Furthermore, and unlike previous UK emission reduction policies, the Climate Change Act includes international aviation emissions explicitly in its 80% 2050 target and implicitly within the current budgets.

For the UK as a whole, then, there is a clear need to balance the cost and overall economic impact of delivering additional reductions in greenhouse gas emissions for these 'other' sectors versus the costs and economic impact of curbing growth in emissions from aviation.

The Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, funded by the Joule Centre for Energy Research, has analysed the emissions, economics and policy implications of the region's aviation industry. The objectives of the Tyndall Centre study are:

1. Introduction
2. Aviation and the North West
3. Estimating Regional Aviation Emissions
4. Developing Low Carbon Pathways for the North West
5. Economic impact of constraining aviation emissions growth
6. Organisational consumption: Understanding Flying for Work
7. Conclusions and Recommendations

The government has five national missions, to:

The Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (DESNZ) leads on the government's mission to Make Britain a Clean Energy Superpower, working in close collaboration with other departments (see Section 1.1.3).

Research, development, and innovation (hereafter 'R&D') are critical enablers for achieving both pillars of the Clean Energy Superpower Mission (CESM): delivering clean power by 2030 and accelerating to net zero by 2050. They provide the robust scientific evidence base for policy decisions and delivery, enable the successful innovation and scaling up of necessary technologies, and enhance productivity and economic growth. As estimated by the International Energy Agency, approximately 35% of the global emission reductions needed in 2050 to reach net zero rely on technologies that are not yet commercially available.

Areas of Research Interest documents (ARIs) set out research questions and evidence needs of government organisations. They are a key tool for shaping the research landscape - helping to align academic, industry, and public sector efforts with government priorities. This ARI document sets out the R&D needed to deliver the CESM, based on cross-government consensus. It captures the breadth of challenges and opportunities across both mission pillars and seeks to encourage more structured dialogue and collaboration with external stakeholders.

This ARI document is intended to support collaboration between government, academia, industry, and other research organisations. It sets out both the full thematic breadth of research areas relevant to the CESM and a focused set of priority R&D challenges where coordinated effort is most urgently required. Together, these provide a strategic framework to guide research investment, shape funding programmes, and inform policy development.

It can be used to:

This ARI has been intentionally developed at a strategic level. While it captures the full breadth of research areas relevant to the mission, it does not aim to provide detailed R&D requirements. Instead, it offers directional guidance on the research considered most valuable at the time of assessment, rather than an exhaustive specification. As part of our future plan, we will define what success looks like and develop approaches to measure progress.

• Systematic review of the existing literature
• Qualitative interview data was collected from 11 long-term users of plug-in vehicles, 40 mainstream consumers (each of which were loaned a vehicle for around six days) and 20 fleet managers.
• These tasks informed a large-scale survey of mainstream consumers (2,729 responses) about their attitudes and opinions regarding plug-in vehicles.
• The resulting data was used to produce a segmentation of mainstream consumers, in terms of their likelihood of purchasing a plug-in vehicle and the various factors underlying this likelihood.
• Factors examined included
  • demographics,
  • attitudes towards perceived functional, instrumental, symbolic and affective characteristics of plug-in vehicles,
  • personality variables, and
  • reported responses to incentives.
• Alongside the survey of mainstream consumers, a choice experiment was implemented to test the complex trade-offs consumers make between factors (e.g. price, range, infrastructure availability, etc).

1. 1. Evaluate the potential role and economics of plug-in vehicles in the low carbon transport system: generate a quantified understanding of the market potential, cost models and carbon benefits case under defined scenarios of infrastructure investments, government intervention packages and financemodel options across a number of key plug-in vehicle type/size/capability points;
2. 2. Develop the technology tool-kit for delivering an intelligent infrastructure: create a verified open interoperability architecture and generate information to aid infrastructure planning (e.g. to indicate how many recharging points are needed and where they should be located, what mix of power levels are required, how the impact of plug-in vehicle recharging on the electricity distribution network should be managed, how the overall system can be simplified for consumers, etc).

• Overview of consumer choice modelling
• Design of the choice experiment
• Analysis of the results 
• Development of the coefficients of consumer choice for the model
• Key parameters of consumer choice are quantified against the eight market segments developed in the ‘Identification of Relevant Consumer Segments’ report. The key parameters presented quantify the effect various factors have on the price consumers are willing to pay for plug-in vehicles. These factors include:
  • availability of infrastructure,
  • vehicle acceleration,
  • electric range and
  • whether the choice is for a first or second car in the household.

• Stage 1 aims to characterize market and policy frameworks, business propositions, and the integrated vehicle and energy infrastructure system and technologies best suited to enabling a cost-effective UK energy system for low-carbon vehicles, using the amalgamated analytical toolset.
•  Stage 2 aims to fill knowledge gaps and validate assumptions from Stage 1 through scientifically robust research, including real world trials with privatevehicle consumers and case studies with business fleets. A mainstream consumer uptake trial will be carried out to measure attitudes to PiVs after direct experience of them, and consumer charging trials will measure mainstream consumer PiV charging behaviours and responses to managed harging options

• Project aims
• Project structure
• Modelling framework
• Narratives (scenarios)
• Stage 1 initial analysis indications
• Stage 1 research with consumers
• Stage 1 research with fleets
• Stage 2

• Vehicle electrification
• The project requires a broad range of expertise
• Modelling capability
• Scenarios have been developed to test further factors
• Interim findings
• Roadmap for efficient ULEV uptake and use
• Trials will deliver further robust evidence

• The Consumers, Vehicles and Energy Integration project is seeking to address the challenges involved in transitioning to a secure and sustainable low carbon vehicle fleet
• An integrated modelling toolset has been developed able to examine the implications for energy supply, infrastructure, vehicles, users, policy and commercial models – and with it, it is possible to test a wide range of scenarios
• Findings from several areas are already available and have been incorporated into a roadmap for delivering efficient vehicle decarbonisation
• Upcoming trials will deliver further robust evidence on how consumers respond to different charging propositions and attitudes to ULEV adoption

• CVEI project overview
• Project structure
• Analytical framework
• Accounting for trends and developments elsewhere
• Consumer adoption: understanding the mass-market
• Interim findings
• Dissemination of outputs

• Stage 1 aims to characterize market and policy frameworks, business propositions, and the integrated vehicle and energy infrastructure system and technologies best suited to enabling a cost-effective UK energy system for low- carbon vehicles, using the amalgamated analytical toolset.
• Stage 2 aims to fill knowledge gaps and validate assumptions from Stage 1 through scientifically robust research, including real world trials with private vehicle consumers and case studies with business fleets. A mainstream consumer uptake trial will be carried out to measure attitudes to PiVs after direct experience of them, and consumer charging trials will measure mainstream consumer PiV charging behaviours and responses to managed charging options.

• Stage 1 aims to characterize market and policy frameworks, business propositions, and the integrated vehicle and energy infrastructure system and technologies best suited to enabling a cost-effective UK energy system for low- carbon vehicles, using the amalgamated analytical toolset.
• Stage 2 aims to fill knowledge gaps and validate assumptions from Stage 1 through scientifically robust research, including real world trials with private vehicle consumers and case studies with business fleets. A mainstream consumer uptake trial will be carried out to measure attitudes to PiVs after direct experience of them, and consumer charging trials will measure mainstream consumer PiV charging behaviours and responses to managed charging options.

• Stage 1 aims to characterize market and policy frameworks, business propositions, and the integrated vehicle and energy infrastructure system and technologies best suited to enabling a cost-effective UK energy system for low-carbon vehicles, using the amalgamated analytical toolset.
•  Stage 2 aims to fill knowledge gaps and validate assumptions from Stage 1 through scientifically robust research, including real world trials with privatevehicle consumers and case studies with business fleets. A mainstream consumer uptake trial will be carried out to measure attitudes to PiVs after direct experience of them, and consumer charging trials will measure mainstream consumer PiV charging behaviours and responses to managed harging options

1. Customer Proposition(CP)–what the customer sees at the point interacting with a ULEV e.g. is the customer buying or leasing the vehicle
2. Physical SupplyChain(PSC)–the technologies and infrastructure required to deliver the vehicles and their energy requirements
3. Commercial Value Chain(CVC)–the commercial entities (and their business models) that sit across one or more parts of the PSC to collectively deliver the CP that the consumer sees –e.g. an electricity retail supplier
4. Market and Policy Framework (MPF)–Government intervention in the form of setting the overarching market framework for commercial entities (e.g. regulated monopolies for network infrastructure) or more direct policy intervention (e.g. in terms of taxes or subsidies on commercial entities or directly at the point of the consumer

• OEM innovation
  • To what extent is incremental/organic improvement delivered primarily via OEMs, with limited Government support, sufficient to deliver mass uptake and use of ULEVs?
  • To what extent does this complicate the delivery of new large-scale supporting infrastructure, in particular with respect to the role of hydrogen?
• City led
  • What is the value of a partial shift towards delivering mobility as a service in urban areas where this appears more viable (e.g. in terms of requiring fewer vehicles with higher utilisation)?
• ULEV enabled
  • To what extent does a more coordinated, but technology neutral, push for ULEVs facilitate their uptake and use?
  • What are the additional costs and broader requirements for providing a meaningful hedge such that mass rollout of either PIVs and/or hydrogen vehicles could both be undertaken in the later stages of the pathway to 2050?
• Hydrogen push
  • How effective is a coordinated push towards hydrogen as the primary ULEV route, given that this mirrors many of the current aspects of the customer proposition (e.g. owning asset, no range issues, ‘hub’ refuelling) as current ICEs and liquid refuelling infrastructure?
  • Is this route materially more expensive compared to other Narratives (such as City-led and Transport on demand) which tend towards electric vehicles and where does this cost difference materialise (e.g. fuel production versus additional infrastructure), and how effectively does early coordinated action reduce these costs?
• Transport on demand
  • What is the value of a systemic, coordinated shift towards delivering mobility as a service, going significantly beyond that in the City-led Narrative (e.g. in terms of requiring fewer vehicles with higher utilisation)?
  • How significant are the implications likely to be for consumers as part of this shift and can the savings from better integrated services be used to compensate for any perceived or material reduction in an individual’s ‘transport utility’ (e.g. less convenience)?

• Stage 1 aims to characterize market and policy frameworks, business propositions, and the integrated vehicle and energy infrastructure system and technologies best suited to enabling a cost-effective UK energy system for low-carbon vehicles, using the amalgamated analytical toolset.
• �Stage 2 aims to fill knowledge gaps and validate assumptions from Stage 1 through scientifically robust research, including real world trials with privatevehicle consumers and case studies with business fleets. A mainstream consumer uptake trial will be carried out to measure attitudes to PiVs after direct experience of them, and consumer charging trials will measure mainstream consumer PiV charging behaviours and responses to managed harging options

• Customer Proposition.
• Physical Supply Chain.
• Commercial Value Chain.
• Market and Policy Framework.

• Stage 1 aims to characterize market and policy frameworks, business propositions, and the integrated vehicle and energy infrastructure system and technologies best suited to enabling a cost-effective UK energy system for low-carbon vehicles, using the amalgamated analytical toolset.
• Stage 2 aims to fill knowledge gaps and validate assumptions from Stage 1 through scientifically robust research, including real world trials with private vehicle consumers and case studies with business fleets. A mainstream consumer uptake trial will be carried out to measure attitudes to PiVs after direct experience of them, and consumer charging trials will measure mainstream consumer PiV charging behaviours and responses to managed harging options

• Customer Proposition.
• Physical Supply Chain.
• Commercial Value Chain.
• Market and Policy Framework.

• Essential – these actions have been clearly identified as good, and found tobe robust to different circumstances explored through the Sensitivity analysis. They are considered to be no or low regret actions.
• Desirable – actions for which a strong case exists and which are likely to have a positive impact under most circumstances. However, a failure to employ these actions is unlikely, by itself, to lead to a failure to achieve mass uptake and use of ULEVs. Additional evidence or reduced uncertainty may also be desired by individual actors before a decision to implement them.
• Provisional – an additional categorisation implying actions for which a positive case may exist, but for which the extent or timing of deployment is likely to depend on reduction of uncertainty in the basis of analysis. This may occur through the passing of time and, for example, realisation of outturn costs. It may alternatively occur through obtainment of additional or expanded evidence from trials or initial pilot scale deployment.

• To what extent users engage and how they respond to new electricity charging tariffs and what this means for charging behaviour, e.g.via some load shifting in response to ToU tariffs as part of User-Managed Charging, or more optimal load shifting through Supplier-Managed Charging.
• Indirect factors affecting the decision to purchase a ULEV over a conventional vehicle,such as uncertainty over the variability of costs of electricity charging at non-home locations, and other ‘components’ that were identified in the four keyareas but not quantified in Stage 1.
• An overarching lack of understanding about the conditions required to enable a shift towards mobility as a service (e.g. what level of financial compensation might be required for any perceived loss of convenience, status and how this varies across different consumer groups.)

• Stage 1 aims to characterize market and policy frameworks, business propositions, and the integrated vehicle and energy infrastructure system and technologies best suited to enabling a cost-effective UK energy system for low-carbon vehicles, using the amalgamated analytical toolset.
• �Stage 2 aims to fill knowledge gaps and validate assumptions from Stage 1 through scientifically robust research, including real world trials with privatevehicle consumers and case studies with business fleets. A mainstream consumer uptake trial will be carried out to measure attitudes to PiVs after direct experience of them, and consumer charging trials will measure mainstream consumer PiV charging behaviours and responses to managed harging options

• Part 1: Overview of Stage 2,
• Part 2: Consumer Uptake Trial,
• Part 3: Consumer Charging Trial,
• Part 4: Fleet Study,
• Part 5: Analytical Tool,
• Part 6: Commercial Submission.

• Stage 1 aims to characterize market and policy frameworks, business propositions, and the integrated vehicle and energy infrastructure system and technologies best suited to enabling a cost-effective UK energy system for low-carbon vehicles, using the amalgamated analytical toolset.
• �Stage 2 aims to fill knowledge gaps and validate assumptions from Stage 1 through scientifically robust research, including real world trials with privatevehicle consumers and case studies with business fleets. A mainstream consumer uptake trial will be carried out to measure attitudes to PiVs after direct experience of them, and consumer charging trials will measure mainstream consumer PiV charging behaviours and responses to managed harging options

• understanding of consumer attitudes towards ULEV adoption including detail of existing and new barriers to adoption;
• to capture and discuss lessons learnt from previous consumer trials to identify risks and develop recommendations to mitigate the risks; and to
• qualitatively explore consumer attitudes to managed charging scenarios (with consumers who have experience of a BEV or PHEV).

• Stage 1 aims to characterize market and policy frameworks, business propositions, and the integrated vehicle and energy infrastructure system and technologies best suited to enabling a cost-effective UK energy system for low-carbon vehicles, using the amalgamated analytical toolset.
• �Stage 2 aims to fill knowledge gaps and validate assumptions from Stage 1 through scientifically robust research, including real world trials with privatevehicle consumers and case studies with business fleets. A mainstream consumer uptake trial will be carried out to measure attitudes to PiVs after direct experience of them, and consumer charging trials will measure mainstream consumer PiV charging behaviours and responses to managed harging options

• Stage 1 aims to characterize market and policy frameworks, business propositions, and the integrated vehicle and energy infrastructure system and technologies best suited to enabling a cost-effective UK energy system for low-carbon vehicles, using the amalgamated analytical toolset.
•  Stage 2 aims to fill knowledge gaps and validate assumptions from Stage 1 through scientifically robust research, including real world trials with privatevehicle consumers and case studies with business fleets. A mainstream consumer uptake trial will be carried out to measure attitudes to PiVs after direct experience of them, and consumer charging trials will measure mainstream consumer PiV charging behaviours and responses to managed harging options

• A ‘first principles’ view of the key components or Building Blocks (BB) that are considered as part of understanding what technology/physical, actors/commercial, market/policy, and Customer Proposition structures are most effective in enabling mass deployment and use of ULEVs, and their relative importance.
• A systematic allocation of the BBs to the Narratives, in such a way as tofocus the framework on the areas of highest materiality, providing the basis for the analysis reported in the separate D1.3 Market Design and System Integration Report.

A significant influence on the feasibility of global integrated assessment will be the routine collection and availability of data of adequate quality through monitoring systems and surveys, collected and analysed on a consistent basis. This note describes progress in the development of the Global Environment Outlook (GEO) Project which at this stage appears to offer the best prospect of meeting this need.

A few broad-brush conclusions appear to emerge from work on global databases so far:

1. In practice, even with GEO, it has simply not proven feasible to identify (let alone make available) each and every data set used for integrated environment assessment and underlying research around the world; the amount of data would be simply overwhelming.
2. Although global, harmonised core data sets are improving, expanding and more easily accessible, there are still numerous inconsistencies and shortcomings. Most of these uncertainties have been highlighted in the main report.
3. In particular, to date, little information is available for assessment of environmental impacts on human health and natural ecosystems and of societal responses to and effectiveness of environmental policy actions.

The data sets need to be collated, tailored and made available to the partners for integrated environment assessment (IEA), most notably in the realm of UNEP's GEO. The four critical questions on data for IEA/GEO assessment and reporting can thus be identified as follows:

1. What information do we need?
2. What data do we have and what is missing?
3. How can we derive the necessary information from existing 'raw' data sets?
4. How do we organise, operate and improve data and information management in the real world?

The first years of the GEO assessment project have shown great strides in identifying the core data sets for IEA/GEO, as well as some of the most obvious gaps and shortcomings. The identification process largely focused on questions 1 and 2 and produced an extensive list of existing core data sets for global environment assessment, based on needs listed by various organisations.

There is also considerable overlap among different environment-related reporting programmes. This would imply the need to compile a generic, flexible core database, which can also serve other assessments than GEO. The sheer magnitude actually makes it very difficult for any single organisation to compile such an empirical base. Thus, in fact, this could and should be an UN-wide effort, which would benefit the assessment activities of UNEP, UNDP, FAO, CSD, IPCC, Convention Secretariats, UN Economic Commissions and possibly others.

• Why is HDV efficiency so important?
• Ship Construction and Lexicon
• Marine Program Structure
• What is our UK Fleet?
• Selected Vessels to represent the HDV Marine Fleet
• What do Ships use for Power today?
• Innovations for Ships
• Technology Impact
• Improved Performance
• Waste Heat Recovery
• High Efficiency Propulsion System Project (HEPS)
• Flettner Rotor System

This report therefore considers what a 2030 world would look like for PiV ( plug-in electric vehicles) purchase and use to be at the levels foreseen in typical scenarios, where it would be possible to end the sale of pure fossil fuel vehicles by 2040 or earlier. It discusses the challenge - how to design and operate the energy system to make that possible. This report discusses three key questions: The nature of the driver experience and the levels of service that could be provided by innovative use of modern internet technologies and infrastructure.

The kinds of public and private charging infrastructure that will be required and what this might mean for charging points in different locations, including the network upgrades required to support them. The integration and operation of the whole system including charging management, the effective carbon intensity of the added electricity load, and the impact on networks and the economics of generation.

This report is a surmised version of the 'ETI Insights Report - Smarter Charing a UK Transition to Low Carbon Vehicles: Full Report'. The report considers what a 2030 world would look like for PiV (plug-in electric vehicles) purchase and use to be at the levels foreseen in typical scenarios, where it would be possible to end the sale of pure fossil fuel vehicles by 2040 or earlier. It discusses the challenge - how to design and operate the energy system to make that possible. The report discusses three key questions:

The report highlights these key points:

• Shipping emits substantial amounts of CO₂ which, without significant intervention, will rise as a proportion of our national emissions as we become less carbon dependent in other industry sectors
• Ocean voyaging ships have the biggest impacts on CO₂ emission due to the length and speed of their voyages and the current calculation method1 underplays the UK's share of international shipping carbon emissions
• There are economic advantages to emitting less carbon (and the economics of such are more cost-effective than some other carbon abatement opportunities in marine and other sectors)Using non-fossil fuels such as nuclear or high levels of biomass does not appear credible in the timeframe assessed
• In the medium to long term (to 2050), the best potential to achieve substantial CO₂ reduction is by fuel consumption reduction
• ETI modelling has shown that a 30% fleet fuel consumption reduction can be achieved using innovative technologies with an economic payback period of around two years and a fuel price of $720/Tonne
• For the opportunity to materialise, fuel-saving technology demonstration is needed to give confidence to stakeholders and overcome market barriers

This guide is to help you to better understand and implement good practice in public sector fleet operations. It can help fleet, operations and strategic managers in the public sector to improve the efficiency and reduce the environmental impact of their goods vehicle operations, while still meeting the service, social and policy obligations applicable to all public sector organisations.

The guide describes the key areas and issues of relevance to public sector goods vehicle operations. It outlines a structured approach and provides case study examples to enable you to review your operations effectively and to implement changes. This guide also signposts sources of further information.

1. About this Guide
2. The Role of the Public Sector Fleet: A Note for Strategic Managers
3. Understanding Public Sector Fleet Operations
4. Designing and Reviewing the Operation
5. Running the Operation
   • Operational Tool 1: Reducing Fuel Consumption
   • Operational Tool 2: Maximising Vehicle Use
6. Improving the Operation
7. Summary
8. Appendix

19 Case Studies are also included in this guide.

1. Evaluate the potential role and economics of plug-in vehicles in the low carbon transport system: generate a quantified understanding of the market potential, cost models and carbon benefits case under defined scenarios of infrastructure investments, government intervention packages and finance model options across a number of key plug-in vehicle type/size/capability points; and
2. Develop the technology tool-kit for delivering an intelligent infrastructure: create a verified open interoperability architecture and generate information to aid infrastructure planning (e.g. to indicate how many recharging points are needed and where they should be located, what mix of power levels are required, how the impact of plug-in vehicle recharging on the electricity distribution network should be managed, how the overall system can be simplified for consumers, etc).

• Stage 1: Concept Design (definition of hypotheses, model development and experimental design)
• Stage 2: Detail Design (planning the implementation of an environment to test the models developed in Stage 1)
• Stage 3: Construction (implementation and pre-commissioning testing environment)
• Stage 4: Operation (data-gathering, analysis and hypothesis/model testing)
• Stage 5: Exploitation (evaluation, communication, standardisation, etc)

The ETI Natural Hazards Project is an initiative funded by the Energy Technologies Institute and delivered by EDF Energy, the Met Office and Mott Macdonald.

The project has produced a set of technical volumes summarising the state of the art on natural hazard characterisation for a variety of natural hazards. These are supported by a set of case studies. Each case study focuses on the application of the methodology and data outlined in the named technical volumes.

This document is a brochure for the launch event of this project titled Enabling Resilient UK Energy Infrastructure: Natural Hazard Characterisation Technical Volumes and Case Studies. This document discusses the context, importance, relevance, and outcomes of the project, along with additional locations for additional information.

The project has led to the development of a set of twelve technical volumes and case studies (found here), covering:

• An introduction to the technical volumes and case studies,
• Extreme High and Low Air Temperature,
• Extreme Wind,
• Extreme Precipitation,
• River Flooding,
• Coastal Flooding,
• Seismic, Volcanic and Geological Hazards,
• Hail,
• Lightning,
• Space Weather,
• Marine Biological Fouling,
• Hazard Combinations.

The aims of the technical volumes and case studies are to:

• Assist in the design of new infrastructure to ensure robustness to natural hazards now and into the future with climate change.
• Ensure that current infrastructure is adequately protected against natural hazards, in particular those emerging hazards researched as part of this project (e.g. space weather, hail, lightning).
• Inform investment decisions for new infrastructure projects as well as assisting with re-investment decisions to support life extension.
• Improve current operational procedures across the energy industry.
• Lead to better preparedness and response time during extreme event.

The purpose of this project is to identify, capture and communicate current relevant good practice when it comes to undertaking environmental risk analysis within the energy industry. This is done by providing access to well-structured and clearly documented good practice which can help avoid the use of outdated methods that could lead to the inaccurate specification of risk, resulting in inadequate or overly conservative infrastructure design. It is the absence of accessible and well-structured good practice that led to the Energy Technologies Institute's commissioning of its Natural Hazards Project.

The UK Government has been seeking views on bringing forward the end to the sale of new petrol, diesel and hybrid cars and vans from 2040 to 2035, or earlier if a faster transition appears feasible. In this joint UKERC/CREDS consultation response we provide views on the following aspects:

• the phase out date,
• the definition of what should be phased out,
• barriers to achieving the above proposals,
• the impact of these ambitions on different sectors of industry and society, and
• what measures are required by government and others to achieve the earlier phase out date.

A phase out date of 2035 or earlier is sensible yet it might not be enough. Our research, recently published in the journal Energy Policy, has found that neither existing transport policies nor the pledge to bring forward the phase out date for the sale of new fossil fuel vehicles by 2035 or 2040 are sufficient to hit carbon reduction targets, or make the early gains needed to stay within a Paris compliant carbon budget for cars and vans.

Our research has shown that deeper and earlier reductions in carbon emissions and local air pollution would be achieved by a more ambitious, but largely non-disruptive change to a 2030 phase out that includes all fossil fuel vehicles. This would include all vehicles with an internal combustion engine, whether self-charging or not. However, only the earlier phase outs combined with lower demand for mobility and a clear and phased market transformation approach aimed at phasing out the highest-emitting vehicleswould make significant contributions to an emissions pathway that is both Paris compliant and meets legislated carbon budgets and urban air quality limits.

The proposed policy will involve high levels of coordination, intention and buy-in by policy makers, business and wider civil society. By far the biggest barrier to change will be the incumbent industries the original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). They have a well-known track record of pushing back against EU vehicle regulations on the grounds of cost. In the case of electric powertrains, this push back is evident, with added resistance on the base of restricted supply chains and time to alter production processes. We suggest this is all the more reason to publish and implement a market transformation strategy now so that early wins which do not rely on supply chains or large transformations to the production line can mitigate against any later genuine supply-side constraints. Such a clear policy steer from the UK government is needed in order to ensure that UK consumers have more choice of cars than they may otherwise get if the OEMs restrict their sales of the most efficient vehicles into the UK market once out of the EU regulatory regime.

UKERC research into various phase-out policies has looked at how disruptive they would be for key stakeholders of the transport-energy system, and how much coordination would be needed to achieve the policy goals. This research has shown that in the Road-to-Zero ICE phase out by 2040 the main actors of the road transport and energy system are unlikely to undergo disruptive change. This is due to the relatively slow and limited evolution of the fleet towards unconventional low carbon fuels, the continuation of fuel duty revenue streams well into the 2040s and little additional reductions in energy demand and air pollutant emissions.

However, in the earlier (2030) and stricter (in what constitutes an ultra-low carbon vehicle) phase-outs we can expect some disruption for technology providers, industry and business in particular vehicle manufacturers, global production networks, the maintenance and repair sector as well as the oil and gas industry. There will also be localised impacts (some potentially disruptive) on electricity distribution networks and companies, even with smart charging.

Ending the sale of new petrol, diesel and hybrid cars and vans earlier, coupled with the electrification of road transport should form a key part of long term decarbonisation policy, but it is not a panacea. First, an earlier phase out date of 2030 implies we have 10 years to plan for and implement a transition away from fossil-fuel ICE cars and vans. As we discussed in our response, our research suggests that this is achievable without significant disruption to the transport-energy system, but it needs to be linked to accelerated investment in charging networks, battery development and deployment, increased market availability of zero-emission vehicles, and equivalent-value support by the Government to level the playing field with the incumbents. Second, our research has shown multiple times that further and earlier policy measures that impact the transport-energy system are needed, including a clear and phased market transformation approach that targets high-emitting vehicles, access bans in urban areas, and dynamic road pricing that could fund an order of magnitude increase in investment in sustainable transport modes.

We support bringing the phase-outdate forward and urge it to be earlier than 2035 and include phasing out any non-zero tailpipe vehicles using a market transformation approach. We strongly believe Government has a crucial role to play in leading the way to decarbonise transport, going well beyond the proposed policy change of bringing forward the end to the sale of new petrol, diesel and hybrid cars and vans from 2040 to 2035 or earlier.

Commencing in 2016, the Financing Community Energy project provides a comprehensive quantitative and qualitative analysis of the role of finance in the evolution of the UK community energy sector. This report presents the third of four case studies of UK community energy organisations, exploring how these organisations have sought to finance their projects against a backdrop of diminishing government support for grassroots sustainable development.

Gwent Energy (Wales) was formed in 2009 to deliver environmental benefit and cost savings to its local community. It aims to help local consumers save money on their energy bills through a combination of renewable energy, efficiency, storage and electric vehicle charging interventions, whilst simultaneously generating a surplus to fund local community initiatives.

This document is a guide created by the Department for Transport on Fuel Saving Devices.

Fleet managers are frequently bombarded by sales literature for products that offer fuel savings that often seem too good to be true. Under pressure to cut costs, a busy manager might be strongly tempted by a 'fit and forget' device that 'allegedly pays for itself in months'. Indeed, given the size of the savings, how could you justify turning down such an offer? On the other hand, what if the product doesn't work? Installing it would waste money; worse still, it might damage your vehicles. Even if it does no harm, it would be better to spend your money, and time, on other more effective fuel saving measures.

This guide is designed to help. It is crammed full with practical tips to help you separate the spurious from the genuine in fuel saving claims. It also gives plenty of advice on how to conduct proper tests, should you get to the stage where you want to test a product.

1. Introduction
2. Where Do You Start?
3. Product Types
4. Testing, Testing
5. Contact Points

In the UK the BOC Group operates some 2,000 large delivery vehicles Its Bulk Gas Delivery Vehicle section alone operates over 200 vehicles with an annual fuel spend of £5 5 million A fleet of over 700 vehicles, delivering gas cylinders, consumes fuel worth a similar annual sum.

With 'state-of-the-art' vehicles and expert drivers, BOC might have thought that its fleet's efficiency could not be improved However, with the rising price of DERV and its influence on the fleet total running costs, BOC Senior Managers decided to set fuel saving targets for the Bulk Gas Delivery Fleet The BOC Board set the fleet a target of fuel savings worth £340,000, which represented about 3% of the previous year's fuel costs Group Fleet Engineer, Mr Jon Ostle, and Operations Support Manager, Mr Mark Badkin, considered the task to be very challenging.

BOC Gases has demonstrated how it significantly reduced both its fleet energy costs produced, and the amount of exhaust emissions by applying a truly professional approach

Their recipe for success included:

• Flettner Rotors
• Wing sails
• Soft-sails

• Demand for On Highway Heavy Duty Vehicles will grow from 3.34m vehicles in 2015 to 4.24m vehicles in 2030 (in the 6 large markets studied).
• The majority of this growth will be in the >7.5 ton vehicle sector, as the Chinese and Indian road transportation markets mature from an “owner operator” model towards a “fleet operator” model. The increase in vehicle weight will increase demand for larger displacement engines (>6 litres) and also encourage further uptake of Automatic Manual Transmissions (AMT) at the expense of manual transmissions.
• Diesel will remain as the dominant fuel type for HDVs with ~85% HDVs powered by Diesel Internal Combustion Engines in 2030.
• It is expected that City Buses will have greater levels of hybridisation and there will be a variety of technical solutions for City Buses, including fully electric, as inner city air quality concerns and legislation increases.
• Emissions legislation will continue to develop in the various regions, with increasing harmonisation between the standards. There is a trend towards increasing number of regulated pollutants, over a larger number of tests and an increased duration (life) that the vehicle must meet the targets. Some regions are beginning to use CO₂ / fuel efficiency regulations and it is expected that this trend will spread to other regions over time

• HDVs represent an opportunity to cost effectively decarbonise the UK energy system across a range of abatement and cost levels
• In the first instance, the ETI’s efficiency projects have shown that a 30% reduction in fuel efficiency across the UK fleet can be achieved with reasonable payback periods
• Properly sourced and managed natural gas when coupled to a low methane slip powertrain can provide further CO₂(equivalent) benefits
• As the UK transitions to a very low CO₂ energy system (circa 2040 to 2050), further ‘carbon priced’ HDV options could become attractive
• The marginal carbon price will be a function ofthe other technologies deployed in the energy system (e.g. CCS versus no CCS), but thresholds can be set using the ETI’s ESME tool
• Barriers exist in the uptake of fuel efficiency technologies and new tools, techniques and policies are required to overcome them –a subject for future work

The brief discusses the contextual nuances of staff travel choices and the potential of policy interventions to encourage sustainable travel modes. Through a detailed review of NHS parking policies and broader academic literature on transport practices. It underscores the need to develop comprehensive trave

This document is a Benchmarking Guide written by the Department for Transport on 'Key Performance Indicators for Food and Drink Supply Chains'.

As far back as 1992 the Department of the Environment supported a project on improving vehicle aerodynamics through the Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme. This was followed by the establishment of a discrete transport efficiency programme in 1994, which by 2005 had evolved into the Freight Best Practice Programme.

The 2007 Survey is a natural progression in a line of similar work all aimed at providing operators with accurate, reliable measures by which their own performance can be compared with the results achieved by others. For the first time the remit has been extended to include the drinks sector, and there is a commitment to carry out a further survey in 2009.

The overall aim of this Survey, and previous ones, was to:

For the 2007 Survey the activities of almost 9,000 vehicles - tractors units, trailers, and rigids - were closely monitored and recorded. These vehicles were operating in the food and drinks sectors, and covered the movement of product from producers to the ultimate point of sale. The data gathered enabled the operational efficiency of those vehicles to be analysed, and measures of that efficiency, i.e. Key Performance Indicators were established.

Comparisons with previous surveys will show general trends and highlight the way that the supply process for food has changed in the last decade or so. However, there were differences in the fleet mix between 1998, 2002 and 2007, both at sector and sub-sector level, and so it is impossible to be sure that the results represent an absolute 'like for like' comparison.

1. Introduction
2. The Key Performance Indicators
3. Conclusions
4. Glossary of Terms

Over the last few years, the Department for Transport, through the TransportEnergy Best Practice programme, has supported a series of benchmarking surveys that have developed a range of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) in a variety of industry sectors.

This Benchmarking Guide aims to help operators identify real opportunities to maximise transport efficiency, reducing both running costs and environmental impact.

The aims of this pilot survey in the non-food retail distribution sector were:

The five KPIs measured during the study were:

1. Vehicle fill - measured by degree of loading against actual capacity by weight, volume (cube) and unit loads carried
2. Empty running - in absolute terms the relocation of empty vehicles, but including legs where returns and packaging were carried
3. Time utilisation - measured by seven categories of use, including being loaded or running on the road
4. Deviations from schedule - covering any delay deemed to be significant, with causes such as congestion en route or waiting at delivery point
5. Fuel consumption - actual fuel used, correlated to factors such as loading and airflow management equipment

These KPIs were chosen because they fulfil a number of key requirements, namely:

A range of additional data was collected in order to correlate actual energy consumption with other factors, including use of delivery windows and use of airflow management equipment.

This document is a Benchmarking Guide written by the Department for Transport on 'Key Performance Indicators for the Next-day Parcel Delivery Sector'.

This benchmarking survey considers the parcel sector, focusing on next-day deliveries for both home and business-to-business consignments. This guide reports on the survey work and further develops the programme's portfolio of benchmarking surveys. These surveys have delivered KPI comparisons between the participating fleets and produced recommendations for the operators. The survey aimed to:

Operators in the next-day parcel delivery sector can use this benchmarking guide to identify real opportunities to maximise transport efficiency, reducing both running costs and environmental impact.

1. Background
2. Introduction to the Parcel Sector Survey
3. The Key Performance Indicators
4. General Survey Statistics
5. Collection and Delivery (C&D) Activity Results
6. Trunking Activity Results
7. Summary and Conclusions
8. Recommendations for Operators

This document is a Benchmarking Guide written by the Department for Transport on 'Key Performance Indicators for the Pallet Sector'.

The pallet network sector has, in part, grown in response to operator pressures, allowing members to benefit from a degree of consolidation and pooling of resources around the UK. Network operation mirrors that of express parcel networks based around a central hub. As many as ten networks currently operate, with nightly throughputs of over 5,000 pallets through a single network now being achieved. The networks offer a range of service levels to customers that must be met by member companies, taking precedence over absolute efficiency and vehicle utilisation where necessary. However, belonging to a network opens up many ways to improve utilisation to members.

The main feature of the network is the hub through which all pallets are moved and transhipped. Each network comprises a number of individual freight transport companies, who belong to it through various contractual arrangements as members, licensees or shareholders.

Companies tend to join and participate in a network to get extra throughput, and thereby improve their vehicle utilisation and efficiency. Vehicle utilisation is a key driver. By belonging to a network, companies benefit because:

The survey was carried out over a continuous 48-hour period starting at 18:00 on 24th February 2004. A total of 17 fleets submitted data for analysis and comparison, although not all fleets provided data for all aspects. The results presented in this guide preserve the anonymity of the participating companies. Each company is given an individual survey report which highlights the data collected from their particular fleet on each KPI. This allows companies to benchmark their performance against others.

1. Introduction
2. The Key Performance Indicators
3. Survey Statistics
4. Collection and Delivery Results
5. Trunking Results
6. Summary
7. Further Reading

There is increasing concern that future supply of some lesser known critical metals will not be sufficient to meet rising demand in the low-carbon technology sector. A rising global population, significant economic growth in the developing world, and increasing technological sophistication have all contributed to a surge in demand for a broad range of metal resources. In the future, this trend is expected to continue as the growth in low-carbon technologies compounds these other drivers of demand. This report examines the issues surrounding future supply and demand for critical metals - including Cobalt, Gallium, Germanium, Indium, Lithium, Platinum, Selenium, Silver, Tellurium, and Rare earth Metals.

The key findings of this report are:

1. Introduction
2. Creating sustainable settlements and sustainable communities
3. Focusing on Outcomes
4. The Evaluation Framework
5. Applying the Framework
6. Lessons for promoting sustainability in settlements
7. Delivering Sustainability: Processes and Procedures
8. Conclusions and Recommendations

The paper investigates the importance of governance for energy system change and specifically investigates some of the areas where the UKs net zero target implies significant infrastructure change or expansion, namely in industry and associated with buildings and transport.

• Energy Vectors for HDV
• The Project
• Structure
• Well-to-Terminal
• Terminal-to-Tank
• Tank-to-Motion
• Pathway Analysis
• The Model
• Uptake Scenario
• Fleet Uptake
• Infrastructure
• HMRC Fuel Duty – Cost to the Fleet
• Overall Conclusions

This working paper explores what people may need to know, learn and have if aPersonal Carbon Allowances (PCA) scheme was implemented, and suggests ideas forpolicies, programmes and initiatives that could support them. A PCA scheme impliesthat individuals would have a personal budget of carbon credits, which they wouldneed to manage, to some extent, in order to stay within its limits, and in the bestcase scenario earn some money by selling not-needed carbon credits. Thus, thispaper looks at the budgeting process from the carbon account holders view pointand applies insights from how people budget under monetary and non-monetaryconstrains to the study of PCA. It also highlights related policy design issues.

The paper is composed of two sections. The first sets PCA in the policy contextalongside other existing and proposed emissions reduction policies. Next it explainsthe mechanisms through which PCA supposes to change energy demand behaviourand then describes the current discourse surrounding PCA in the UK. The secondsection lays out the rational for examining PCA through the lense of budgeting andpoints at questions arising from the concept of living within a carbon budget. It then discusses in detail the prerequisites for carbon budgeting, which include: setting the budgetary limits; knowing personalised carbon income and expenditure; having low carbon alternatives; having the opportunity to perform low carbon choices; receiving advice and support; and learning how to trade. This is followed by a short concluding section.

A recent Government study into personal carbon trading1 (PCT) concluded that as a policy instrument PCT has potential to engage individuals in taking action to combat climate change, but is essentially ahead of its time and expected costs for implementation are high.2 . Yet, at the same time Defra has recognised that further research is being taken forward by academics and research institutions outside of Government, and Defra will keep a watching brief on their progress3 . PCT related research studies being undertaken in different universities and institutions across the UK, or overseas, have not yet been brought together in a coherent way and interaction between researchers has been limited. In addition, the Defra studies have highlighted some areas for further research. Thus, the key aims of the workshop were to:

1. Map the field of PCT research: learn what each of us is doing and our respective research focus;
2. Determine where we have got so far, in terms of knowledge and understanding of PCT and its related issues;
3. Discuss future research directions with regard to funding opportunities;
4. Create a PCT researchers network; and
5. Discuss and agree the process for publishing a PCT edited volume through the Climate Policy journal that provides a comprehensive, state-of-the-art review of PCT research to date.

These key aims have largely been met. In the Appendix of the main report is a document setting out the research interests of the workshop participants, giving a flavour of who is doing what where. The Climate Policy journal has expressed interest in publishing a special issue on PCT in early 2010. Papers for this special issue are now being coordinated by the Environmental Change Institute of the University of Oxford.

This paper argues that reducing the impacts of aviation should be treated as a priority by those interested in averting climate change, and that the scale of reduction needed can only be achieved through demand restraint i.e. discouraging people from flying. Economic policy potentially has a key role to play in this process. The UK Government has the power to introduce a number of economic measures to complement the EU Emissions Trading Scheme, and these measures probably offer the best hope of starting to restrain demand in the immediate future.

This document is a case study on Thorntons plc in Alfreton, Derbyshire for 'Proactive Driver Performance Management Keeps Fuel Efficiency on Track'.

Thorntons is a major UK manufacturer and retailer of premium confectionery, with more than 4,200 employees. Its 65-acre site, Thornton Park, links manufacturing, packing, warehousing and distribution operations in one location. The distribution operation delivers a product range of over 1,000 different stock items on a regular basis to its 389 stores and 198 franchised locations, including 26 sites with Thorntons' cafes.

A fuel management programme was originally implemented in 1995 as part of the company's commitment to:

The encouraging results achieved convinced Thorntons of the need to develop and refine the programme to maintain and increase savings, and to achieve further environmental benefits. They invested further in computerised fuel monitoring equipment and introduced a range of key driver performance indicators linked to financial bonuses. The success of this incentive scheme is due primarily to its careful management, which allows individual drivers to raise issues and explain any under-performance on a weekly basis.

"Distribution may be subsidiary to the main activity of our business, but it underpins our overall commercial success. As the business as a whole strives to increase its turnover, so we constantly endeavour to reduce both the financial and environmental costs of our distribution operation. Since 1999, Thorntons has increased turnover from £143 million to £167.1 million per year, but the percentage cost of distribution relative to turnover has fallen from 1.83% to 1.56%.

One of the key tools used to achieve this reduction in operating costs has been our fuel management programme - undoubtedly a cornerstone of our operation. It is a great example of drivers, operations staff and management working together to improve our operational efficiency and reduce our operating costs. The programme has been developed over a number of years and will continue to be refined in the future."

Scott Wilson, The University of the West of England, Bristol and Hall and Partners were commissioned by Defra to undertake research on the Public Understanding of Sustainable Transport. The research involved a multiple method approach, combining 3 six-hour deliberative workshops, engaging 100 people and 12 individual mobility biographies with selected participants. The deliberative workshops were held in Birmingham, Winchester and York.

Recruitment to the workshops was carried out according to an equal representation of 6 segments: Greens, Consumers with a Conscience, Wastage Focussed, Currently Constrained, Basic Contributors and Long Term Restricted.

Environmental awareness and subsequent concern were found to be widespread across all groups. Some segments were more knowledgeable and opinionated than others were and this variety of engagement with the issues was expected. It is acknowledged by researchers and through the evidence from the exit questionnaires that involvement in the project itself may have altered participants, attitudes and future behaviour (possibly short term).

However, despite there being little obvious dissent to the concept of sustainable transport reported in the workshop or biographies, the actual change in behaviour in the past discussed in the Mobility Biographies as a result of this environmental awareness was largely in domains other than sustainable mobility; most obviously the recycling of household waste. Furthermore, a 'deep green' approach to environment generally appeared to be off putting.

The public's discourse around transport behaviour often emphasises or implies permanence: 'I can't give up my car', 'buses don't run where I need to go'. However, the Mobility Biography findings confirm that behaviour changes towards more sustainable mobility do occur, but may not be permanent. More consideration might be given in the future as to whether transport policy initiatives might be targeted at specific life stages. For example, the Energy Savings Trust's 'Commit to Save 20%' campaign targets short car journeys made by motorists in general. An initiative more targeted to life-stage groups such as university students, might suggest they delay car ownership until they are in a different life stage when the benefits are greater compared to the environmental costs, i.e., it may be more difficult in physical mobility terms and more expensive for a young family to access a public transport vehicle than it is a single adult, so the emissions and energy costs of car use are easier to justify.

This study suggests that the climate change debate is permeating wider society, but that much of the environment debate seems to be carried out in a fragmented and inconsistent manner, both by society and at the individual level. Despite this growing awareness amongst the participants and claims that environmental information is 'not new news', the dominant discourse from both the mobility biographies and the workshops still was that the environment alone is an insufficient motivator to change behaviour. In other words it is probably only going to be a supporting factor in encouraging behaviour change

1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Consumers, understanding, assumptions and aspirations of sustainable transport
4. Consumer expectations
5. Consumer acceptance and the behaviour goals
6. Communicating with the consumer
7. Conclusions
8. Recommendations

• Annex A: The Defra Segmentation
• Annex B: Q Recruitment Questionnaire
• Annex C: Workshop Discussion Guide
• Annex D: Pre Task
• Annex E: Mobility Biography Protocol

The 2006 Energy Review stated that the Government intended to raise awareness of transport and climate change issues, and the approach would include, “developing initiatives on eco-safe driving”.1 This proposed Quick Hit would see energy-efficient driving, also known as eco-driving or eco-safe driving, incorporated into the practical driving test, to reinforce advice currently covered by the theory test. Furthermore, it would inform drivers about alternative fuels and efficient vehicle technology, and incorporate this new information into the theory test. While knowledge of issues such as alternative fuels would not affect the ability of a person to drive, driving lessons and the driving test present a suitable opportunity to raise awareness amongst drivers and positively influence their choices before habits are formed.

This Quick Hit outlines how limiting the speed limit on motorways and dual carriageways to 60 mph or even merely better enforcing the current 70 mph limit could be one of the most equitable, cost-effective and potentially popular routes to achieve reductions in carbon emissions. If implemented, it could also have the potential to slow traffic growth and influence the vehicle market with further carbon reduction benefits, in addition to optimising current road network capacity and bringing significant safety benefits.

The replacement of incandescent lamps with LED (light emitting diode) lights in traffic signals in the UK could reduce the demand for electricity by up to 70%. Additionally, the move could also offer substantial savings to highway authorities through less frequent replacement of lamps and, consequently, staff maintenance time.

The UK has an estimated 420,000 traffic and pedestrian signal heads, installed and managed by individual highway authorities. Each head contains two, three, or four 50W lamps, although for the majority of the time only one of these is lit up. These traffic signals currently use an estimated 101.7m kWh of electricity per year and cause the release of nearly 14,000 tonnes of carbon (around 50,000 tonnes of CO2). The number of traffic signals in the country continues to grow at around 3% a year – Transport for London estimated an increase of 17.5% in the capital alone between 2000 and 2005.

Quick Hits are a series of proposed initiatives developed by the Demand Reduction theme of the UK Energy Research Centre (www.ukerc.ac.uk). They are intended to make a useful contribution towards reducing carbon emissions by 2010, and are designed to be relatively easy for the Government or local authorities to implement. Legislative changes or expenditure needed would be small in nature, hence the title Quick Hits.

Car-sharing using car clubs is a successful way of reducing vehicle usage and ownership amongst those who join, and has proven to be effective in several countries. This proposed Quick Hit would reduce carbon emissions from vehicle use through the creation of a coherent, national network of car clubs, ensuring that in the long term there is at least one in every large town and city in the UK. Data collected from existing car clubs suggests that me

• Vehicle electrification
• Users and Vehicles
• Energy supply
• Project aims
• Project structure
• Modelling framework
• Narratives (scenarios)
• Stage 1 initial analysis
• Stage 1 research with consumers
• Stage 1 research with fleets
• Stage 2

• Substantial challenges associated with widespread roll-out of low carbon vehicles; shift from a “problem for the network” to an “opportunity through integration of vehicles as part of a wider system” can yield benefits for all actors in the system, including:
  • increased uptake of low-emission vehicles, managing charging and refuelling, and optimising the system design
• Analysis and solutions must be holistic (considering all parts of the system together, including users)
• Robust trials in Stage 2 will generate data to test solutions and inform analysis, and will add unique value:
• Trial with mass-market users (i.e. people from the majority of the vehicle user and fleet operator markets)
• Addressing widely-applicable plug-in vehicles (BEVsand PHEVs) suitable for wide range of users
• Holistic system design

This document is a case study on Transco National Logistics in Birmingham made by the Department for Transport.

Transco's National Logistics team stores and delivers engineering materials and meters for National Grid Transco's gas supply business. Their National Distribution Centre in Birmingham operates 35 articulated vehicles. Every year the fleet delivers £120 million worth of goods to 14 smaller warehouses and over 200 customer locations across the UK. In order to achieve this, the vehicle fleet travels approximately 2.5 million miles, consuming around 1.4 million litres of diesel. This distribution costs approximately £3.5 million a year, a significant element of which is the cost of fuel.

Transco's National Logistics team is an excellent example of how improving the efficiency of a transport operation can realise significant environmental benefits that contribute to a company's overall EMS. Their experience highlights that these benefits can be achieved with relatively straightforward solutions. A collection of ideas from the workforce as a whole has delivered impressive environmental and cost benefits.

Transco has demonstrated that good environmental practices will both enhance your reputation and save you money. The implementation of three initiatives has had the combined, annual environmental benefit of:

UKERCs 2017 Review of Energy Policy, appraises energy policy change over the last 12 months, and makes a series of recommendations to help meet the objectives of the governments Clean Growth Plan.

Our main recommendations are:

1. ‘Develop a strategy to avoid ‘cliff edges’ for the energy sector due to Brexit, including effects on interconnectors, the single electricity market for the island of Ireland, and nuclear power.
2. A White Paper that includes stronger incentives for energy efficiency across the economy, and an enhanced programme of low carbon heat demonstration and evaluation.
3. Learn from the success of offshore wind by extending competitive auctions in the power sector.
4. Minimise the costs of electricity system change and renewables integration by increasing incentives for flexibility.
5. Complement the additional funding for CCS innovation with a new strategy for deployment in the industrial and power sectors.
6. Ensure that vehicle taxation and other incentives are compatible with the target for phasing out new conventionally fuelled cars and vans by 2040. This should be complemented by a wider strategy for mobility that takes into account anticipated new services and business models.
7. A more comprehensive programme of action to involve citizens and communities in the clean energy transition, building on ‘Green Great Britain Week’.
8. Identify opportunities for energy policy learning across the UK – particularly in the areas of heat, engagement and energy efficiency.

1. The transition to net-zero will affect the whole economy. Investment and policy decisions by all government departmentmes need to be compatible with this transition.
2. Policies to support renewable electricity generation should be more ambitious, building on deployment and cost reduction successes. Action is also needed to ensure electricity market rules are fit for a fully decarbonised power sector.
3. Decisions by the energy regulator, Ofgem, should also be compatible with net-zero. This includes enabling investment in local electricity networks to facilitate heat and transport decarbonisation, and ensuring more active use of existing networks.
4. Local energy systems could play a significant role in achieving net-zero, particularly in the integration of electricity, heat and transport. More resources and greater powers for Local Authorities will help to ensure the potential for local action is realised.
5. A clear plan is required for upgrading the UK housing stock. A heat and energy efficiency White Paper must include policies for widespread deployment of low carbon heat (including demonstrating hydrogen at scale) and for prioritising low income households.
6. Whilst the decarbonisation of industry is receiving more attention, policy initiatives are not joined up. Funding for specific projects and industrial clusters should be complemented by market creation policies, including for carbon capture and storage.
7. Our analysis shows that achieving net-zero requires the phase out of fossil-fuelled vehicles to be brought forward to 2030. Immediate action is also required to counter the rapid increase in sales of larger cars (including SUVs).
8. Plans to meet net-zero should maximise environmental co-benefits. Potential negative impacts on ecosystems should be assessed and mitigated.
9. Continuing uncertainty about the UK’s changing relationship with the European Union has already affected decarbonisation plans. Whatever the outcome, close co-operation with the EU is likely to make it easier to achieve net-zero.
10. The transition to net-zero should not compromise energy security. In light of the events on August 9th, responsibilities for ensuring system resilience need to be clarified and applied in a more rigorous way.

In this issue of UKERCs annual Review of Energy Policy, we discuss some of the effects of COVID-19 on the energy system and how the unprecedented events of 2020 might impact energy use and climate policy in the future.

Focusing on electricity demand, transport, green jobs and skills, Brexit, heat, and societal engagement, the Review reflects on the past year and looks forward, highlighting key priorities for the Government.

Key recommendations

Electricity

The scale of investment in the power system required over the coming decade is huge. A big challenge is market design. We need a market that can incentivise investment in low carbon power and networks at least cost whilst also providing incentives for flexibility. Output from wind and solar farms will sometimes exceed demand and other timesfallto low levels. The right mix of flexible resources must be established to deal with variable output from renewables, with the right market signals and interventions in place to do this at least cost.

Mobility

The end of the sale of fossil fuel cars and vans by 2030 must be greeted with enthusiasm. Yet if this is to play its part in a Paris-compliant pathway to zero emissions, it must be one of many policy changes to decarbonise UK transport. Earlier action is paramount, and we recommend a market transformation approach targeting the highest emitting vehicles now, not just from 2030. Phasing-in of the phase-out will save millions of tons of CO2 thus reducing the need for radical action later on. The forthcoming Transport Decarbonisation Plan has a lot to deliver.

Green jobs and skills

COVID-19 recoverypackages offer the potential to combine job creation with emissions reduction. A national housing retrofit programme would be a triple win, creating jobs, reducing carbon emissions and make our homes more comfortable and affordable to heat. However, UKERC research finds that there are significant skills gaps associated with energy efficient buildings and low carbon heat. UKERC calls for a national programme of retraining and reskilling that takes advantage of the COVID downturn to re-equip building service professions with the skills needed for net zero.

Brexit

As the UK leaves the EU on the 1st January it will lose many of the advantages of integration. With new regimes for carbon pricing, trading, and interconnection yet to be agreed, there will be a high degree of uncertainty in the near to medium term. Given upward pressure on energy costs,delays to policy, and this uncertainty surrounding new rules, the overall effects of Brexit are not positive for UK energy decarbonisation.

Heat

UKERC research calls for action on heat to deliver the net zero technologies that we know work - insulating buildings and rolling out proven options. We need to end delay or speculation about less-proven options. Analysis is consistent with recent advice from the CCC that heat policy should focus on electrification whilst exploring options for hydrogen. We need to break the pattern of ad hoc and disjointed policy measures for heat and buildings, and develop a coherent, long-term strategy. This would be best achieved as an integral part of local and regional energy plans, involving local governments as coordinating agents. The aspirations for heat cant be realised unless we also take actionon the skills gap.

Societal engagement with energy

Achieving net zero in 2050 will entail significant changes to the way we live, what we eat and how we heat our homes. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown that when faced with a threat, society can change rapidly. Engaging society with the net zero transition also needs to change, it needs to be to be more ambitious, diverse, joined-up and system-wide, and recognise the many different ways that citizens engage with these issues on an ongoing basis.

With a focus on gas and the UK continental shelf, industrial decarbonisation, heat, mobility and the environment, we look at developments both at home and internationally and ask whether the UK is a leader in decarbonisation, and if the transition is being managed as well as it could be.

As we reach the end of 2018, the scorecard for UK energy policy is mixed. Optimists can point to rapid emissions reductions, cost falls in renewables and the centrality of clean energy within the Industrial Strategy. Ten years after the Climate Change Act was passed, UK greenhouse gas emissions have fallen by 43% from the level in 1990. The UK is on the way to meeting the first three carbon budgets, and a transformation of the power sector is well underway.

However, if we turn our attention from the rear view mirror, the outlook is more pessimistic. As the Committee on Climate Change pointed out in June, there are an increasing number of policy gaps and uncertainties. If not addressed promptly, meeting future carbon budgets will be much more challenging. For some of these gaps, there is a particularly clear and immediate economic case for action.

Key recommendations:

The government needs to take urgent action to ensure that the UK continues to meet statutory emissions reduction targets, and goes further to achieve net zero emissions. This not only requires new policies to fill looming gaps in the portfolio, it also requires much greater emphasis on sharing the benefits and costs of the low carbon transition more equitably. Our main recommendations are:

1. We repeat our call for a heat and energy efficiency White Paper, and recommend that the Industrial Strategy mission to reduce building energy use is extended to existing buildings.
2. A better, more targeted approach to the energy needs of low-income households is required. Energy efficiency investment for these households should be funded via general taxation.
3. Urgent large-scale trials of heat decarbonisation using hydrogen are required to understand whether it could be technically, economically and socially viable.
4. A dashboard of indicators is needed to monitor gas security during the energy transition. The current one dimensional approach is not sufficient.
5. Future electricity policy should build on the Electricity Market Reform policies that have worked well, and adapt them in the light of changes in technologies and costs.
6. Changes in incentives for ‘black start’ and other ancillary services are necessary to ensure that the electricity system remains resilient as it changes.
7. The target for phasing out conventionally fuelled vehicles is inadequate and does not fit with our emissions targets. The 2040 date should be brought forward and linked to accelerated investment in networks and charging.
8. The Industrial Strategy needs to be strongly linked to market creation policies for low carbon technologies. Carbon capture and storage is in particular need of such policies to progress beyond its current holding pattern.
9. To ensure widespread support for the energy transition, there needs to be more focus on equity and justice. The UK government should consider setting up a process similar to Scotland’s Just Transitions Commission to achieve this.
10. Continued vigilance is required to mitigate any negative impacts of Brexit, particularly those that could affect integration with European energy markets.

This review takes stock of UK energy policy ahead of the Autumn Statement, Industrial Strategy and new Emissions Reduction Plan. Its main recommendations are:

1. An integrated, evidence based approach to the new Industrial Strategy and Emissions Reductions Plan. The Industrial Strategy should set out clear priorities and the mechanisms for realising benefits for the UK
2. A new White Paper on Heat and Energy Efficiency
3. A Gas by Design approach to the future of gas that is compatible with carbon budgets and targets
4. A new approach to CCS commercialisation and deployment, in response to the Oxburgh report
5. An extension of the Levy Control Framework beyond 2020, and plans for auctions that include most large-scale electricity technologies and demand reduction in a single auction
6. Reform of the Capacity Mechanism so it gives equal

Energy System Demonstrators are physical demonstrations testing new technologies for low-carbon energy infrastructure.

A review of energy systems demonstrator projects in the UK was undertaken for UKERC by the Energy Systems Research Unit (ESRU) at the University of Strathclyde. The review encompassed 119 demonstrators and consisted of two phases: 1) the identification of demonstrator projects and 2) an analysis of projects and their outcomes.

Energy demonstrators

The review defined an energy system demonstrator as "the deployment and testing of more than one technology type that could underpin the operation of a low-carbon energy infrastructure in the future". Only demonstrators that post-date the 2008 Climate Change Act were included and that included a physical demonstration at one or more UK sites. 119 projects were identified that met the search criteria.

There were two phases of review activity. Phase 1 involved identification and documentation of demonstration projects, involving a systematic search to identify and record the details of projects. Phase 2 was a review of project outcomes and outputs, particularly end-of-project evaluations, covering technical, economic and social outcomes where available.

The review outputs (available here) are a final report summarising the findings, 119 demonstrator project summaries (the Phase 1 reports), 119 demonstrator output analyses (the Phase 2 reports) and a GIS (Geographic Information System) map and database showing the locations and project details of the demonstrators.

The final report, attendant project summaries and GIS data are intended to provide policy makers and funding bodies with an overview of the existing demonstrator "landscape", enabling decisions on future demonstrator calls and the focus of those calls to be made with a clearer knowledge of what has already been done.

Project files

• Access the demonstrators GIS map here.
• Access the Phase 1 summaries here.
• Access the Phase 2 summaries here.

The aims of the guide are to:

SAFED for Vans has been designed as a single course aimed at improving the safe and fuel efficient driving techniques of LCV drivers.

Safer driving means:

SAFED training has been developed specifically to enable both fleet operators and training providers to implement driver training within the LCV industry. It provides training and development for existing LCV drivers through instruction relating to vehicle craft and road craft

The guide is for training providers, fleet operators, in-house driver trainers and LCV drivers. It outlines the principles of SAFED and provides a step-by-step guide through the one-day SAFED training course

1. Background
2. Prior to undertaking a training programme
3. Essential core information
4. Training programme and assessment material

This document is a case study of TNT Express in Atherstone, written by the Department for Transport.

Aerodynamic drag is created as air resists the movement of a vehicle. This drag can have a significant impact on the vehicle's fuel consumption. The greater the drag, the harder the vehicle engine has to work and, as a result, more fuel is consumed.

Aerodynamic drag is affected by a number of factors, including vehicle shape, size of the vehicle's frontal area and travelling speed. Well maintained aerodynamic styling and correctly adjusted aerodynamic equipment can help to reduce drag.

Many trucks are supplied with aerodynamic styling by the manufacturer. Aerodynamic equipment can also be retrofitted to vehicles to improve fuel efficiency

The case studies illustrate that significant fuel savings can be made by using aerodynamics on tractor units and semi-trailers. The level of savings will depend on the type and size of vehicle, the travelling speed, the distances covered and also the nature of the operation. Higher speed long-distance trunking operations are more likely to derive greater benefit from aerodynamic styling than short distance stop/start multi-drop urban delivery operations.

Fuel savings from aerodynamic styling on a tractor unit account for up to 85% of all aerodynamics-based fuel savings. So, even if you do not own any semi-trailers, it could be worth equipping your tractor unit with a cab roof deflector and cab extension panels. If you operate using a variety of different height semi-trailers, it is worth considering installing a variable height cab roof deflector.

This case study is divided into the following sections:

Evidence breifing from ESRC drawing upon research from the UK Energy Research Centre, outlined in the paper Modelling the uptake of plug-in vehicles, examines the timing, scale and impacts of the uptake of plug-in vehicles in the UK car market from a consumer perspective. The results show the importance of accounting for the varied and segmented nature of the car market, social and environmental factors, as well as considering how different uptake scenarios affect wider lifecycle emissions.

The primary purpose of road lighting is to make people, vehicles and objects on the road visible by revealing them in silhouette against the road surface. As a result, road lighting standards are expressed in terms of three luminance metrics, average road surface luminance, overall luminance uniformity ratio and longitudinal luminance uniformity ratio. The luminance of any point on a road surface is a function of the illuminance on, and the reflection properties of, the pavement material. The reflection properties of the road surface will be determined by the pavement material used, whether it is wet or dry, and how much use the road has had.

Despite the existence of these variables, the recommended design method for road lighting in the UK uses one set of data for characterizing the reflection properties of road surfaces, called the representative British road surface, although this is modified for concrete roads. Quantitatively, the reflection properties of a road surface are given by a reduced reflection coefficient table, called an r-table. This r-table is summarised by two metrics; Q0, this being a metric of the diffuse reflection, and S1, this being a metric of the specular reflection. The representative British road surface design method has been applied for many years to roads constructed with such established pavement materials as hot rolled asphalt and brushed concrete. However, there are now a number of new asphalt-based pavement materials available, such as porous asphalt, stone mastic asphalt and a number of proprietary thin surfacings together with one new concrete-based pavement material, exposed aggregate concrete. The first objective of this report is to determine whether these new pavement materials can be accommodated within the representative British road surface road lighting design system. If they cannot, the second objective is to suggest what should be done to ensure the accurate design of lighting for roads where these new pavement materials are used.

The first part of this report summarizes the development of the representative British road surface and describes how it is used in the calculation of road lighting luminances. Then, the magnitude of the errors inevitable in using a single r-table to describe many different pavement materials is examined, as is the effect of use on the reflection properties of pavement materials. The reflection properties of a pavement material change markedly over the first six months of use, this change contributing to the large discrepancies that can occur between the luminance metrics calculated using the representative British road surface and r-tables specific to different pavement materials.

From a consideration of the calculations made and the caveats expressed, the following actions are recommended:

1. Action should be taken to confirm the validity of the Q0 values for both established and new pavement materials given in Cooper et al. (2000). This should be done in two stages. The first is to identify a laboratory based measurement system capable of giving consistent results for the same pavement material sample. The second is to use the identified measurement system to measure r-tables for all pavement materials frequently used in the UK, the materials being dry and at an appropriate state of wear.
2. If the Q0 values given in Cooper et al. (2000) are shown to be valid, a decision has to be made on whether or not to accept errors in the average road surface luminance of the magnitude found here, for both new and established pavement materials. If such errors are acceptable, then the representative British road surface approach can be applied to the new pavement materials without change. If such errors are not acceptable, the representative British road surfaces in BS5489 should be abandoned as a basis for road lighting design.
3. If the representative British road surfaces in BS5489 are to be abandoned, they should be replaced with two new r-tables, one for asphalt-based pavement materials and one for concrete-based pavement materials. These two new r-tables might be formed from the current C2 r-table but with every cell adjusted so that one r-table has Q0 = 0.050 and the other r-table has Q0 = 0.085. The former r-table would be taken as representative of asphalt-based pavement materials. The latter r-table would be taken as representative of concrete-based pavement materials.
4. To avoid any consequent increase in costs for road lighting following such a change in recommended r-tables, the soundness of the current luminance recommendations used for road lighting design in England and Wales should be assessed.
5. To avoid any consequent increase in costs for road lighting following such a change, the practicality of increasing the amount of light reflected from pavement materials by incorporating brighteners into the material mix should be evaluated.
6. The practicality of measuring road luminance metrics from a moving vehicle should be investigated. Equipment designed to do this already exists. Its use would provide a means for determining compliance with contract and for identifying the need for maintenance.

1. Background
2. The route to the representative British road surface
3. Errors inherent in the use of the representative British road surface
4. Road reflection properties and pavement recipes
5. New pavement materials and their reflection properties
6. Questions to be addressed
7. Discussion
8. Caveats
9. Recommendations
10. References
11. Acknowledgements
12. Appendix

This workshop set out to address four key questions, a) to d), identified prior to the event. Experts were invited to tackle these questions through means of a preworkshop briefing paper. These papers were circulated to participants in advance of the workshop. The authors presented a brief summary of their paper during the workshop and participants were invited to discuss the issues raised by the paper and any other related issues. The briefing papers are available in the Appendices of the full report, which can be downloaded from the UKERC website.

This document is a summary for the project titled 'The development and socio-economic analysis of low carbon pathways for aviation in the North West'.

The aviation industry is one of the fastest growing sectors of the UK economy and the most problematic in terms of its impact on the climate. Currently aviation accounts for over 6% of UK carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and, according to Government figures, growth in emissions for the year 2003-4 were in excess of 11%. It is expected that this year emissions from aviation will be similar to those from car travel in the UK. By 2020 it will be the sector with the second highest emissions and by 2030 it is likely to dominate UK CO₂ emissions. Whilst for many sectors, technology offers substantial short to medium-term opportunities to significantly reduce emissions, within the aviation sector only incremental refinements to an already technically-mature industry are credible before 2030. Consequently, improvements in aircraft and engine design combined with operational practices, offer only a 1% per annum reduction in fuel-burn per passenger per km. Exacerbating this absence of a significant increase in fuel efficiency is the long design-life of aircraft, effectively locking society into the current technology for at least the next 30-50 years. Recent research has clearly demonstrated that unless aviation growth is tackled as a matter of urgency, this single industry will absorb the complete carbon dioxide budget of the UK if the Government's commitment to the 2°C threshold is to be met.

This project will provide a detailed understanding of aviation's contribution to the regional economy how and why the North West (NW) aviation emissions are rising and, more particularly, it will inform the ongoing development of the NW climate change strategy.

The overall objective of this research was to determine whether the operation of the CRAGs movement, and the experiences of individuals involved, can offer any useful information about the process of individual/household level carbon footprint reductions, the psychological effects of having a carbon allowance and trading system, and therefore any issues for consideration in the design of a Personal Carbon Trading policy. The specific aims were therefore:

• to obtain factual information about CRAGs, such as details of the carbon allowances set, accounting procedures and trading systems;
• to learn about the experiences of individuals involved, such as whether they have made behavioural changes and cut their CO2 emissions, and if so how, what they have found easy or difficult in their attempts to live a lower-carbon lifestyle;
• to elicit the opinions of CRAG members on their motivations for involvement in the movement, on personal carbon trading, and on the benefits and limitations of CRAGs;
• to attempt to discover what role, if any, being part of a group plays in demand reduction, given that the behavioural changes themselves are at the individual/household level.

This paper comprises a review of technology roadmaps on sustainable energy use for transport, including road, rail, shipping and aviation. The paper summarises the environmental impacts of ‘renewable’ energy use for transport and the advances in knowledge and technology required to mitigate negative environmental impacts and to ensure environmental sustainability. It will assess the extent to which these issues are addressed by roadmaps from both Europe and North America (roadmaps are indicated by number in parenthesis) and will highlight omissions and apparent gaps in knowledge.

The transport sector remains at the centre of any debates around energy conservation, exaggerated by the stubborn and overwhelming reliance on fossil fuels by its motorised forms, whether passenger and freight, road, rail, sea and air.

The very slow transition to alternative fuel sources to date has resulted in this sector being increasingly and convincingly held responsible for the likely failure of individual countries, including the UK, to meet their obligations under consecutive international climate change agreements.

Electrification of transport is largely expected to take us down the path to a zero carbon future (CCC, 2019; DfT, 2018). But there are serious concerns about future technology performance, availability, costs and uptake by consumers and businesses. There are also concerns about the increasing gap between lab and real world performance of energy use, carbon and air pollution emissions. Recently, the role of consumer lifestyles has increased in prominence (e.g. IPCC, 2018) but, as yet, has not been taken seriously by the DfT, BEIS or even the CCC (2019).

Developed under the auspices of UKERC the Transport Energy Air pollution Model (TEAM) has been designed to address these concerns and uncertainties in exploring pertinent questions on the transition to a zero carbon and clean air transportation future.

TEAM is a strategic transport, energy, emissions and environmental impacts systems model, covering a range of transport-energy-environment issues from socio-economic and policy influences on energy demand reduction through to lifecycle carbon and local air pollutant emissions and external costs.

TEAM is a major update of UK Transport Carbon Model of 2010. To use the updated model for research purposes, please contact Christian Brand, noting that due to its size (the complete suite of modelling databases uses about 500MB of storage space) the model can only be made available by request.

The transport sector remains at the centre of any debates around energy conservation, exaggerated by the stubborn and overwhelming reliance on fossil fuels by its motorised forms, whether passenger and freight, road, rail, sea and air.

The very slow transition to alternative fuel sources to date has resulted in this sector being increasingly and convincingly held responsible for the likely failure of individual countries, including the UK, to meet their obligations under consecutive international climate change agreements.

Electrification of transport is largely expected to take us down the path to a zero carbon future (CCC, 2019; DfT, 2018). But there are serious concerns about future technology performance, availability, costs and uptake by consumers and businesses. There are also concerns about the increasing gap between lab and real world performance of energy use, carbon and air pollution emissions. Recently, the role of consumer lifestyles has increased in prominence (e.g. IPCC, 2018) but, as yet, has not been taken seriously by the DfT, BEIS or even the CCC (2019).

Developed under the auspices of UKERC the Transport Energy Air pollution Model (TEAM) has been designed to address these concerns and uncertainties in exploring pertinent questions on the transition to a zero carbon and clean air transportation future.

TEAM is a strategic transport, energy, emissions and environmental impacts systems model, covering a range of transport-energy-environment issues from socio-economic and policy influences on energy demand reduction through to lifecycle carbon and local air pollutant emissions and external costs.

TEAM is a major update of UK Transport Carbon Model of 2010. This report contains the detailed appendices relating to TEAM :

• Appendix A: Vehicle Stock Model Variables and Data Tables
• Appendix B: Direct Energy and Emissions Model Data Tables
• Appendix C: Life Cycle and Environmental Impacts Model further specifications

To use the model for research purposes, please contact Christian Brand, noting that due to its size (the complete suite of modelling databases uses about 500MB of storage space) the model can only be made available by request.

The aim of this paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current and potential future contribution that the transport sector makes to the UK’s emissions of Carbon Dioxide (CO2). The aim is to develop an understanding of:

• The scale, composition and security of official baseline and projected figures for CO2 emissions from the transport sector to 2010 and beyond.
• The source of the official emissions projections, the assumptions currently used to calculate these figures and the uncertainty associated with them.
• The research needed to identify appropriate policy packages and CO2 emission targets for the UK transport sector for 2050.

The focus of this paper is on UK surface transport, although the discussion on emissions projections includes aviation. Aviation has also been discussed in a previous UKERC seminar.

• Targeted a 3-4% fuel efficiency benefit and hence green house gas benefit from this project whilst exceeding emissions standards
• SCR fitted to every truck and large off-highway machine sold in the EU and many newer cars
• ETI requested a SCR system capable of achieving a 98% reduction in NO_x whilst not exceeding the space requirement and delivering a superior cost to own to the end use
• SCR technology must be applicable across a range of vehicle types and usage cycles
• Light usage vehicles and machines are the most challenging
• Lots of developmental solutions –little science based engineering.
• Achieved project objectives(3-4% GHG benefit at acceptable cost and package size) – applicable to any diesel engine!
• And many side benefits...

This document is a guide on 'Truck specification for best operational efficiency' under 'Freight Best Practice' written by the Department for Transport.

The capital cost of a vehicle may account for less than 50% of its whole-life cost when fuel, maintenance and other operating expenses are taken into account. Fuel can represent up to 30% of your operational costs. Clearly this is a significant amount and any reduction in fuel costs or improvements in operational efficiency can improve the 'bottom line' of your business.

Spending time in developing an accurate and appropriate vehicle specification will help you do this. Ensuring vehicles are closely matched to the tasks they are expected to perform will improve both fuel and overall operational efficiency. This can lead to cost savings, increased profitability and reduced environmental impact.

On the other hand, inaccurate and inappropriate vehicle specification can result in purchasing a vehicle that is unsuitable for the task it will be required to carry out. Although such vehicles may be slightly cheaper in terms of initial investment, it may become significantly more expensive to operate when fuel consumption and maintenance costs are taken into account in the long term. Poor vehicle specification, in some cases, may even lead to breaches of the law and possible legal action.

Who Should Use this Guide? Everyone who is responsible for acquiring goods vehicles weighing over 3.5 tonnes gross vehicle weight (GVW). This could be fleet managers, owner drivers and operational managers. It will equip you with the information you need to ensure the most beneficial long term outcome when acquiring commercial vehicles.

This publication provides independent and authoritative guidance on vehicle specification. It will show you just how easy it is to produce a fit-for-purpose specification and will take you through the key stages of vehicle specification. Sections 2-4 cover the basics of vehicle specification, while Sections 6-7 contain more detailed information.

1. Introduction
2. Identify Freight Movement Requirements
3. Types of Trucks Available
4. Ensuring the Truck is Fit for Purpose
5. Detailed Specification: Core Components
6. Detailed Specification: Additional Features
7. Maximising Efficiency

• Appendix 1 - Typical Whole Life Costs for Standard Commercial Vehicles
• Appendix 2 - Exhaust Emission Limits Specified by European Legislation
• Appendix 3 - Maximum Vehicle Weights - Standard Terminology
• Appendix 4 - Legal Constraints and Requirements

Reducing CO₂ emissions from UK transport is likely to require a combination of measures, including increased energy efficiency, new technology introduction, and fuel switching. Apart from demand-side management, the most important technologies can be divided into (a) vehicles and (b) fuels.

Key vehicle technologies are:

Different fuels can be used in these different vehicles:

Each of these technologies and fuels faces technical, cost and policy challenges before it can compete commercially. However, these do not appear insurmountable. Each also offers benefits other than simply possible reductions in CO₂ emissions from transport. In the near term, hybrid vehicles and biofuels are expected to be the main contributors to reductions in emissions. The environmental impact of biofuels is complex and care should be taken in evaluating and monitoring their real-world effects, especially if either raw materials or finished fuels are imported. In the longer term, but only if technical development is successful, fuel cell vehicles using hydrogen offer the potential for major emissions reductions.

The table below gives indicative figures, and ranges, of costs of carbon reduction from different fuels and routes. It is extremely important to note the uncertainty inherent in all of the cost and price assumptions made here, especially as the timescales increase. Robust policy must be based not only on these numbers, but also on other factors that have not been examined under the analysis conducted for this report.

1. Introduction
2. Important Issues and Caveats
3. Vehicle Technologies
4. Fuels
5. Technology and Cost Issues and Other Barriers
6. Costs of Energy Use and CO₂ Emission Reduction
7. Policy
8. Summary

Bridging the gap between short-term forecasting and long-term scenario models, the UK Transport Carbon Model (UKTCM) is a strategic transport, energy, emissions and environmental impacts model, covering a range of transport-energy-environment issues from socio-economic and policy influences on energy demand reduction through to lifecycle carbon emissions and external costs.

Developed partly under the auspices of the UK Energy Research Centre (UKERC) the UKTCM can be used to develop transport policy scenarios that explore the full range of technological, fiscal, regulatory and behavioural change policy interventions to meet UK climate change and energy security goals.

This UKERC Research Landscape provides an overview of the competencies and publicly funded activities in energy efficiency (transport)research, development and demonstration (RD&D) in the UK. It covers the main funding streams, research providers, infrastructure, networks and UK participation in international activities.

UKERC ENERGY RESEARCH LANDSCAPE: ENERGY EFFICIENCY TRANSPORT

• Section 1: An overview which includes a broad characterisation of research activity in the sector and the key research challenges
• Section 2: An assessment of UK capabilities in relation to wider international activities, in the context of market potential
• Section 3: Major funding streams and providers of basic research along with a brief commentary
• Section 4: Major funding streams and providers of applied research along with a brief commentary
• Section 5: Major funding streams for demonstration activity along with major projects and a brief commentary
• Section 6: Research infrastructure and other major research assets (e.g. databases, models)
• Section 7: Research networks, mainly in the UK, but also European networks not covered by the EU Framework Research and Technology Development (RTD) Programmes
• Section 8: UK participation in energy-related EU Framework Research and Technology Development (RTD) Programmes
• Section 9: UK participation in wider international initiatives, including those supported by the International Energy Agency

The introduction of Electric Vehicles (EVs) into the passenger vehicle market has, in recent years, become viewed as a primary solution to the significant carbon emissions attributed to personal mobility. Moreover, EVs offer a means by which energy diversification and efficiency can be improved compared to the current system which is dominated by internal combustion engines powered by oil based fuels. The UK and EU Governments have played an active role in steering the development and market introduction of EVs. Policies have been formulated and introduced to engage the consumer by raising awareness of these alternative options, incentivise adoption through fiscal measures and establishing the necessary infrastructure. However, a great deal of uncertainty remains regarding the effectiveness of these policies and the viability of the EV technology in the mainstream automotive market.This paper investigates the prevalence of uncertainty concerning demand for EVs. This is achieved through the application of a conceptual framework which assesses the locations of uncertainty. UK and EU Government policy documents are assessed through a rapid evidence review alongside contributions from academia to determine how uncertainty has been reduced.

This assessment offers insights to decision makers in this area by evaluating the work done to date through a landscape analysis. Results from the analysis identified six different locations of uncertainty covering (1) consumer, (2) policy, (3) infrastructure, (4) technical, (5) economic and (6) social.

Scope of the Call for Evidence and objectives in respect of flexibility

We welcome the attention being paid by Ofgem and BEIS to the need for flexibility in Britain’s electricity system. In our view the main reason to support electricity system flexibility is that it can help minimise the costs of meeting the UK’s statutory climate targets whilst ensuring that system security is not compromised. The electricity system’s ability to adapt to changing demand in timescales of years down to minutes and varying availability of power from different resources will be extremely important to meeting these policy goals. Furthermore, action is needed so that those consumers that are best able to adapt their patterns of use of electricity have sufficient incentives and rewards for doing so. One manifestation of the main goal in accommodating future generation and demand is an objective to maximise the utilisation (across each year of operation) of electricity system assets, i.e. generators, network components and storage facilities.

Whilst the title of the call for evidence focuses on ‘a smart, flexible energy system’, most of the raised relate to the electricity system. We have therefore focused most of our responses on electricity rather than the energy system as a whole. Our responses are selective. We have only answered those questions where we can offer relevant evidence, based on our research and expertise.

• Energy Storage
• Flexible Demand
• Pricing and tariffs
• Procurement of System Services
• Interactions between transmission and distribution
• Industry Leadership
• Roles in planning and operating the future power system
• Evidence and access to data

Scope of the Call for Evidence and objectives in respect of flexibility

We welcome the attention being paid by Ofgem and BEIS to the need for flexibility in Britain's electricity system. In our view the main reason to support electricity system flexibility is that it can help minimise the costs of meeting the UK's statutory climate targets whilst ensuring that system security is not compromised. The electricity system's ability to adapt to changing demand in timescales of years down to minutes and varying availability of power from different resources will be extremely important to meeting these policy goals. Furthermore, action is needed so that those consumers that are best able to adapt their patterns of use of electricity have sufficient incentives and rewards for doing so. One manifestation of the main goal in accommodating future generation and demand is an objective to maximise the utilisation (across each year of operation) of electricity system assets, i.e. generators, network components and storage facilities.

Whilst the title of the call for evidence focuses on 'a smart, flexible energy system', most of the raised relate to the electricity system. We have therefore focused most of our responses on electricity rather than the energy system as a whole. Our responses are selective. We have only answered those questions where we can offer relevant evidence, based on our research and expertise.

This document only answers questions 28 -32 inclusive. Another document is available http://ukerc.rl.ac.uk/UCAT/PUBLICATIONS/Response_to_Ofgem-BEIS_call_for_evidence-smart_flexible_energy_system.pdf which gives answers to other questions in the consultation.

• There are extremely ambitious technology deployment rates (for example for CCGT, heat pumps and electric vehicles) within some scenarios that could be challenging in reality and should therefore be subjected to stress testing.
• In addition to the need for appropriate investment signals, analysis should address the incorporation of a very active demand side and if the current arrangements can handle large amounts of intermittent generation supplying an elastic demand side.
• UKERC recommends that Ofgem consider a stress test that examines the loss of Norwegian gas supplies.

The Transport Studies Group (TSG) at the University of Westminster was commissioned by the Department for Transport (DfT) to carry out a scoping study to identify the potential for the development of urban consolidation centres (UCCs).

UCCs have been subject to much discussion and occasional trials, but to date there has been a lack of evidence-based information upon which potential operators or policy-makers can base decisions as to the viability of such initiatives. This report is intended to assist with the provision and interpretation of that information.

Broadly speaking the key purpose identified for UCCs is the avoidance of the need for vehicles to deliver part loads into urban centres or other large developments. This objective can be achieved by providing facilities whereby deliveries can be consolidated for subsequent delivery into the area in an appropriate vehicle with a high level of load utilisation.

The main components of the study have been:

For the purposes of this project, a UCC is best described as a logistics facility that is situated in relatively close proximity to the geographic area that it serves, be that a city centre, an entire town or a specific site (e.g. shopping centre), from which consolidate deliveries are carried out within that area. A range of other value-added logistics and retail services can also be provided at the UCC.

The work carried out in this project suggests that, from a logistics perspective, the major potential beneficiaries from the establishment of UCCs would be:

1. Introduction
2. Synthesis of Key Issues
3. Appraisal of Urban Consolidation Centre Schemes
4. A Framework for Urban Consolidation Centre Evaluation
5. Conclusions
6. Recommendations

• Appendix 1: Summary Review of Literature
• Appendix 2: UCC Data Sheets
• Appendix 3: Interview Topic Guide
• Appendix 4: UCC Classification Proposed by Other Authors

• Light Vehicles in the UK (age, emissions, life, mileage etc)
• Plug-in vehicle sales
• Consumers, Vehicles and Energy Integration (CVEI) project

The issues relating to climate change have risen dramatically to the top of the political agenda, and the importance of transport in contributing to reducing levels of CO₂ is clearly evident: yet the problem remains that traffic levels continue to rise. All the projections suggest that significantly reducing emissions from current levels is likely to be very difficult. As urban and transport planners, policy makers and the public, we need to start to think very differently about tackling the global emissions problem.

The VIBAT project (Visioning and Backcasting for UK Transport Policy) has examined the possibility of reducing transport CO₂ emissions by 60 per cent by 2030. It has examined a range of policy measures (i.e. pricing, regulation and technological), and assessed how they can be effectively combined to achieve this level of CO₂ emissions reduction. The intention has been to assess whether such an ambitious target is feasible, to identify the main problems, and to comment on the main decision points. The study is based on the innovative research technique of backcasting, which has been used for the first time in the transport planning field in the UK.

This executive summary is mainly targeted at policy recommendations. Those interested in more details of the research carried out during the DfT Horizons Research Project 2004/05 should refer to the three extended working papers and presentations produced during the research (September 2004 - November 2005) and to a sister document on methodological issues.

1. To test the visioning and backcasting methodologies as a means to assess challenging new environmental targets for UK transport policy - this is the methodological objective;
2. To produce a set of images of the future that represent different alternative visions for the year 2030, and to determine alternative policy packages that it would be necessary to introduce to achieve these images, together with the policy paths that highlight when change has to take place - this is the policy objective.

The VIBAT project has demonstrated through the use of a sound and innovative methodology that the targets set are achievable provided that there is not a substantial increase in travel between 2000 and 2030.

The old debate in terms of relying on technological improvements to help maintain our current CO₂ intensive lifestyles seems to be obsolete. We need a renewed emphasis over a very wide range of fields. Multi-disciplinary thinking is critical.

1. Towards a 60% reduction in transport emissions
2. Visioning the backcasting for the future
3. The VIBAT baseline and projections
4. The VIBAT images of the future
5. Policy packages
6. Package clustering and policy pathways
7. The way forward for policy makers

With ever-higher operating and running costs, efficient goods vehicle fleet management is an important requirement for any business engaged in or reliant on freight transport. Time conscious customers demand flexible and reliable deliveries which can be costly if the efficiency of goods vehicles routing and scheduling is compromised.

The objective of this research was to test the effectiveness of satellite navigation on improving the efficiency of HGV operations. If, on balance, these are found to be positive for the freight industry, we would recommend the ways to improve the take up of satellite navigation systems in HGVs, with the aims of:

An eight week in-fleet trial of portable SatNav units was conducted in October/November 2005 in four HGV fleets to compare the before and after effects of the use of satellite navigation systems in the freight industry. Company vehicles were monitored without satellite navigation for the first four weeks and then, after a week of familiarisation with the satellite navigation systems, drivers' runs were monitored for a further four weeks using the systems.

Following the successful trial period all data was collected and analysed in order to present both the positive and negative findings. There are three sets of findings, quantative from the trial data, qualitive from a questionnaire issued to drivers and Transport Managers following the trial and general findings obtained from desktop research and informal consultation.

Although it is difficult to be sure of the precise benefits of SatNav for vehicles of 7.5 tonnes MGW and above it is clear that in concept there are certain applications that they have the potential to become an everyday tool of the trade. This is especially so where new or temporary drivers are being used and where an experienced driver is often required to travel to unfamiliar destinations.

The barriers to SatNav spreading across the road freight industry centres on the non freight specific information held in the mapping software where the SatNav system takes its instructions from.

However, if a driver is aware of the potential misrouting and takes sensible decisions, it can be argued that the less familiar a driver is with the delivery address, the greater the contribution that a navigation system could make to operational efficiency. Similarly, the more locations a mobile worker has to visit each day, the greater the potential savings.

From the research team's knowledge of freight operations the following is a list of industry sectors for which satellite navigation might be particularly beneficial:

1. Introduction
2. Background Information
3. Technical Review
4. Market Review
5. The Trial
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
7. Appendix
8. Glossary of Terms

With ever-higher operating and running costs, efficient goods vehicle fleet management is an important requirement for any business engaged in or reliant on freight transport. Time conscious customers demand flexible and reliable deliveries which can be costly if the efficiency of goods vehicles routing and scheduling is compromised.

The objective of this research was to test the effectiveness of satellite navigation on improving the efficiency of HGV operations. If, on balance, these are found to be positive for the freight industry, we would recommend the ways to improve the take up of satellite navigation systems in HGVs, with the aims of:

An eight week in-fleet trial of portable SatNav units was conducted in October/November 2005 in four HGV fleets to compare the before and after effects of the use of satellite navigation systems in the freight industry. Company vehicles were monitored without satellite navigation for the first four weeks and then, after a week of familiarisation with the satellite navigation systems, drivers' runs were monitored for a further four weeks using the systems.

Following the successful trial period all data was collected and analysed in order to present both the positive and negative findings. There are three sets of findings, quantative from the trial data, qualitive from a questionnaire issued to drivers and Transport Managers following the trial and general findings obtained from desktop research and informal consultation.

Although it is difficult to be sure of the precise benefits of SatNav for vehicles of 7.5 tonnes MGW and above it is clear that in concept there are certain applications that they have the potential to become an everyday tool of the trade. This is especially so where new or temporary drivers are being used and where an experienced driver is often required to travel to unfamiliar destinations.

The barriers to SatNav spreading across the road freight industry centres on the non freight specific information held in the mapping software where the SatNav system takes its instructions from.

However, if a driver is aware of the potential misrouting and takes sensible decisions, it can be argued that the less familiar a driver is with the delivery address, the greater the contribution that a navigation system could make to operational efficiency. Similarly, the more locations a mobile worker has to visit each day, the greater the potential savings.

From the research team's knowledge of freight operations the following is a list of industry sectors for which satellite navigation might be particularly beneficial:

This report focuses on food miles - what they are, whether and how it might be possible to reduce them and what the consequences of so doing might be.

'Food miles' is a phrase used to encapsulate concerns about the increasing distances our food travels, and the environmental and social consequences thereof.

In this report we consider whether measures to shorten the food supply chain and reduce food miles can help cut CO₂ emissions from transport and, in so doing, achieve an overall reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from the food system.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change states that we need to achieve a 60-80% cut in human-generated greenhouse gas emissions. All sectors, including the food industry, will have to make a proportionate contribution to achieving this goal.

We suggest that the features of a lower carbon food system would include the following six elements:

In short, action to foster a lower carbon food system requires movement in the following direction:

1. A recognition that the food system needs to reduce the quantities of CO₂ it emits very considerably.
2. Policies and measures to reduce carbon emissions throughout the life-cycle of food so that trade-offs become synergies.
3. A stronger national and regional food base.
4. Measures to shift businesses away from long distance food transport and towards more nationally and regionally based sourcing.
5. Co-ordinated and co-operative methods of distributing goods both for the multiples and for local independent stores.
6. Information and Communication Technology which assists the development of less carbon-intensive systems.
7. Different retail structures.
8. Changes in the way we consume.
9. Ongoing research.

Finally, industry, government and consumers alike have a choice. We can seek to salvage elements of sustainability from the current system, in order to keep the system going as it is for a little longer. Or we can take a risk, look further into the future, and start to think and do differently. We believe the second route to be the only survivable option.

1. Introduction
2. Food in the supply chain
3. Food and freight: The trends and their impact
4. The technological approach: How far will efficiency get you?
5. Why things are the way they are: The influences shaping the food supply chain
6. The business approach: Anticipating and preparing for the future
7. Food, transport distance and life-cycle carbon emissions: Exploring the relationship
8. A lower carbon food system: Exploring the alternatives and the policies for achieving them
9. Recommendations

• Annex one: Localism: The debate

• Innovation opportunities exist in fuel cell system designs and production methods
• Innovations are also being pursued in hydrogen storage to enable use in large, long-range vehicles
• Opportunities to reduce fuel consumption by up to 35% through improved vehicle design (unrelated to engine) have been explored for trucks in the US
• Further design and demonstration work should be carried out on zero emission trucks, particularly on larger, long-range configurations